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The Nomadic Way of Life

It is not clear when or where nomadism began. But it seems certain that since the beginning of recorded history the Mongolian people have made their living by nomadic herding. The Mongolian steppe is extremely dry and unsuited to agriculture. Apart from the north there are no forests, so living by gathering is not possible, and with no place to hide, hunting is not viable either. The one thing that was barely possible was nomadic herding, and Mongolia was the ideal place for it.

In Japan, nomadism tends to be described with an image of "wandering freely in search of water and grass". In reality, because it is work dealing with living creatures, it requires more labor than farming, and people move under various constraints.

The Four Seasons of Nomadism: Moving Within Constraints

Though there are regional differences, nomadic moves are basically made four times a year, matching the seasons of spring, summer, autumn and winter. With modernization, herding by motorbike and moving by truck can be seen, but the basic form of nomadism has not changed. An old saying goes as follows.

"In spring camp where you are sheltered from the wind, in summer by the water, in autumn at the foot of the mountains, and in winter beside old livestock dung."

In this way, the year on the steppe goes round.

The Nomads' Dwelling, the "Ger"

The ger (called "yurt" in other languages) is an ideal dwelling, indispensable to the mobile life on the steppe. Three or four people can assemble it in about an hour, and it is light enough to be moved easily by ox cart or camel. In summer, opening the lower edge lets a cool breeze through, and at night you can look at the stars through the skylight and sleep smelling the grass. In winter, layering felt on the outside keeps out the cold. Because it is round, there are no corners, so the space is used widely and the heating reaches every corner.

There are no partitions, only curtains in front of the beds. Household goods are extremely simple: the stove in the center provides warmth and is used for cooking. Three or four beds are placed along the left and right walls, with chests for clothes under the beds, and near the entrance are a cupboard, a water bucket and containers for livestock milk. There is neither a kitchen nor a toilet, and whichever ger you visit, this style does not change. It is thoroughly simple, with nothing superfluous, yet nothing is lacking in daily life.

Assembling a Ger

• Walls: Four or five "khana", expanding lattice wall frames made by weaving thin wood diagonally, are joined in a circle. The number of khana determines the size of the ger; five is usual.
• Entrance: A wooden door frame is stood facing south or southeast. Large furniture and the stove are put inside beforehand.
• Roof: Two pillars (bagana) in the center support the round skylight frame (toono); roof poles (uni) are inserted into the skylight like the ribs of an umbrella, and the other ends are tied to the tops of the khana, completing the framework.
• Covering: The framework is covered with felt. First the walls, then the roof, with felt cut in fan shapes, and finally tightened with ropes. A 1 m square cloth (urkh) with ropes is placed over the skylight and opened and closed with the ropes.
• Floor: Lay wooden boards or carpets, put the stove in the center and run the chimney out through the skylight, and it is complete. There are no support poles or cords at all; it is simply placed on the grass and withstands strong winds.

Diet in Nomadic Society

Meat

The basis of a nomad household's diet is meat and dairy products. There are sayings such as "Mention meat and the cheeks swell" and "The best of meals is meat", praising meat dishes. All meat is eaten, but sheep meat is so preferred that "meat" generally means mutton.

In the traditional dish, a sheep killed without shedding blood outside the body is, following custom, divided into shoulder, ribs, breast, thigh and so on, and simply boiled in a big pot with salt, bones in, without even spices. It is so simple it hardly counts as cooking, but the flavor of the meat is brought out and it is truly delicious. Everything is eaten from the organs to the bone marrow, and not a drop of blood is wasted, being made into sausage. Traditionally, roasting meat is taboo, with the idea that "the juices fall and dirty the fire". It seems also because roasting wastes the nutritious juices and fuel.

There is a proverb, "Every meat has its custom", and there are rules not only for preparation but for how to eat, how to arrange, how to serve guests and how to hold it. Beef and goat meat are made into dried meat, and mutton is made into a preserved food by simmering it with salt called "shuus" until it becomes like corned beef. It is said that the dried meat of one whole cow, ground almost to powder, fits in the cow's bladder, and that of a goat in a goat's bladder. On the steppe, "guriltai shul (meat noodle soup)", with dried meat or shuus in handmade noodles, is a standard dinner dish. It is also indispensable on long journeys.

Dairy Products

In summer, whichever ger you visit, dairy products are served piled high. Dried cheese "aaruul" is hung to dry on the ger roof, and a cowhide bag for making airag is placed on the left of the entrance. In this season the ger is wrapped in the sweet and sour smell of dairy products. Dairy products are called "tsagaan idee (white food)" and are a basic food alongside meat. From summer to autumn, when livestock give plenty of milk, dairy products are the center of the diet, and in summer little meat is eaten.

Mongolian dairy products may be among the most varied in the world. Livestock milk is not drunk raw but is all processed. Even liquor is made from milk. Each is made through repeated steps such as standing, churning and heating. Mare's milk does not curdle, so only airag is made from it, but it is so nutritious that "one mare's milk can satisfy three people", and some people spend the summer on airag alone.

Milk also goes into tea. "Suutei tsai (milk tea)" is made by putting tea leaves into hot water boiled in a big pot and simmering, then adding fresh milk and salt and stirring. Milk fat or butter is sometimes added, making it like a soup. It is drunk often from morning to night. In summer, when little meat is eaten, morning and noon meals are often finished by nibbling dried cheese such as aaruul while drinking suutei tsai.

The Winter Lifeline: Livestock Dung

Japanese people tend to frown at livestock dung, but for nomads it is a lifeline and a treasure of the steppe. It is well dried, has good heat, smells pleasant, gives off no carbon monoxide, and on the steppe there is no better fuel. The dung of all livestock is used, but each has a different use and even its own name. This shows how important it is to life.

• Cow dung: Dried, it is called "argal". It is large and easy to collect, and because cows are ruminants it holds fire well, so it is commonly used.
• Horse dung: One-year-old is "khomool". Horses do not ruminate so it holds fire poorly and is used for starting fires. Two- to three-year-old is called "khukh khomool (blue khomool)", a splendid fuel that shines blue and does not let rain through.
• Sheep and goat dung: "Khorgol". Because it is small it is not picked up for use; instead, what is excreted every night in the pen where the animals are sheltered is trampled into a thick layer, cut out and dried for use. Called "khurzun", it can be obtained in large amounts and has strong heat, making it the best fuel.

Dung has uses beyond fuel. It is piled on the north side of the ger as a windbreak, and under the dung of sheep pens, which does not freeze even in midwinter, it acts as a natural refrigerator where airag and the like can be buried and stored. In winter it is sometimes laid under the ger. Also, horse and cow dung produces a lot of smoke, so it is burned around the animal shelters to protect young livestock from flies and horseflies. Dung also fertilizes the steppe and helps the pasture grow. It is truly a treasure of the steppe.

Horses and the Mongolians

As the proverbs "Mongolians are raised on horseback" and "A Mongolian has four legs" say, horses and the lives of nomads cannot be separated. "A good horse" means good luck, "to take off the stirrups" means to reach the destination and finish the work, and "to go see the horses" is an idiom for going to the toilet. There are also proverbs such as "To purify the heart, climb a mountain; to cure illness, ride a horse" and "A man's courage, a saddled horse's ability". The horse is active both in driving off illness and in stirring up courage, which tells us what the horse means to Mongolians.

Whereas sheep are valued as real property, horses have, besides real value, a strong ornamental quality symbolizing social status. Riding a fine horse and galloping freely across the steppe is the pride of nomads, and the longing to own a fine horse is never exhausted in songs and tales. In folk tales and the like, horses appear as companions who understand each other, and sometimes, even recognized as having abilities superior to humans, as helpers of the hero.

What kind of horse is the fine horse Mongolians long for? One that runs ahead of all and has excellent endurance to run long distances; the style of its gallop is also an important condition. A horse that moves with a lateral gait, putting out the left and right legs alternately, called a "jorgo", can fetch ten times the price of an ordinary horse.

The horse, a source of pride in this way, is treated with respect. Because good fortune is said to dwell in a horse's head, it is never beaten with a whip, and a beloved horse is not eaten. Ordinary horses are also eaten, but they are distinguished from other livestock, and after eating they receive treatment such as being enshrined at an ovoo.

Nomad Wisdom: Castration

One feature of Mongolian nomadism is castration. Herd animals fight over females among males in the rutting season and tend to scatter. Because nomadism keeps livestock as herds, it does not work if the herd scatters. Yet culling would reduce the livestock that are wealth. So a certain number are kept as breeding males and the others are castrated, with the aim of preventing the herd from scattering without reducing livestock. Its origin is unknown, but it is brilliant wisdom. For this reason, no livestock are disposed of by culling in Mongolia. The lamb meat that circulates in the world as lamb comes from culling, and it is said that Mongolia has none.

The usual time for castration is a horse in its third year (after turning three), cattle at two years, and sheep and goats at around three months. It is easy for sheep and the like, but for horses it is heavy labor: catching the horse is hard, and it takes three or four strong men to pull it down and hold it. Women help with shearing, but castration is a man's job.

Castration has many advantages beyond preventing the herd from scattering and livestock from decreasing. For example, the remaining breeding male becomes the leader and leads the herd, so the herd can be managed just by controlling that male, which is indispensable for managing horse herds. Also, geldings are gentle and easy to ride, so they are used as riding horses. It is said that Chinggis Khaan's army was also made up of geldings. The meat of castrated sheep is said to be tender, free of odor and delicious.

Views of Dogs and Wolves

Faithful Watchdogs

When you approach a nomad's ger by car, a big dog with two spots on its forehead and drooping ears barks at you ferociously. This is the so-called "Mongolian dog". The guest calls out loudly to the household, "Hold the dog!" This is the first greeting, and the guest gets out of the car only after confirming that the host has come out and held the dog. "A guest the dog doesn't bite" is an idiom for an acquaintance or a frequent visitor.

Every ger keeps one or two dogs, given the job of keeping outside enemies from entering the area around the ger and the sheep flock. They bark even if a car merely passes nearby, but when the car leaves the territory to be guarded, they return as if relieved that their job is over. Truly faithful watchdogs. From winter to spring, when the mountains are covered with snow and small animals disappear, wolves frequently appear near the camps targeting livestock. Driving off those wolves is an important job of the dogs.

Though given such an important role, the reality is that the dog is rated low. "Whether the dog barks or not is the same" and "A dog barks, a camel walks" are judgments that it is nearly useless. "A dog's character" means a bad character, "a dog's face" means an unpleasant appearance, and "a dog's way" means straying from the path of humanity. However, there are also proverbs that value the dog's role, such as "If the dog is good the sheep grow fat; if the wife is good people gather".

The Wolf, Judged in Complex Ways

In mountain areas snow leopards also attack livestock, but on the steppe only wolves attack livestock. Wolves are said to leap into a flock and indiscriminately bite sheep at the throat to kill them. In fact, stories of as many as 100 sheep killed by wolves in a single night still make the news today. Damage is especially great from winter to spring, when small animals disappear from the mountains, and one of the nomads' important jobs in this season is protecting livestock from wolves. Horses are also easy prey, and wolves are said to love horse meat. Horses, which do not ruminate, eat a lot, so if horses are near the camp the grass for sheep and cattle disappears; for this reason horses are grazed away from the camp. A watch is kept, but wolves are said to skillfully exploit gaps and attack horses that have strayed from the herd and slow foals.

Naturally, a wolf that attacks livestock is rated as the ultimate villain, with sayings like "The wolf to the sheep, the rich to the poor" and "Wolf if it eats, wolf if it doesn't". On the other hand, people even feel awe for its solitary, dignified figure that, unlike a dog, does not fawn on people. As an "animal protected by heaven" and an "animal that brings good luck", people rejoice that "meeting a wolf on a journey is a good omen", and consider "meeting a fox" bad and change their route. The custom of wearing a wolf's ankle bone as a charm against evil still exists. It is said that a household that wolves visit will see its livestock increase, and when livestock are eaten it is accepted as "heaven took what it should take". Weak livestock being attacked seems to be thought of as natural selection.

The oldest Mongolian classic, "The Secret History of the Mongols", tells that the ancestors of Chinggis Khaan were a wolf given a mandate from heaven and a deer that crossed the lake, conveying that the wolf has since ancient times been an object of awe. In this way the wolf is, for Mongolians, a mysterious animal whose evaluation is unsettled and which stirs complex feelings.